1-dim persistent homology

• Simplex: Vertex, Edge, Triangle, Tetrahedron
• $n$-simplex: $\Delta = \{ \sum_{i=0}^n t_i a_i | t_i \ge 0, \sum_{i=0}^n t_i = 1\}$
• Convex Hull (minimal convex set)
• Standard $n$-simplex: Take the Standard Basis
• Face of a simplex: Sub-Simplex i.e. when some of $t_i$ equals $0$.
• 2-simplicial complex is a collection of simplices $K$: contains Vertices, Edge, Triangles
• 1. The intersection of two simplices is a face of each simplex.
• 2. If a simplex is in $K$, all of its faces are in $K$.
• 1st homology: counting the number of cycles (or holes) without redundancy.
• A cycle is "redundant" if it is a linear combination of other cycles or it is the boundary of a simplex.
• "Equivalence up to continuous deformations"
• Linear Combinations: think $\mathbb{Z}_2$ interpretations in graph theory. (direction is important)
• Trivial Cycles
• The entire $\mathbb{R}^2$ except the origin. Think of an ant walking around it.
• The 1st homology of $S^1$ is $\mathbb{Z}$.
• The 1st homology of a torus is $\mathbb{Z} + \mathbb{Z}$.
• The "two independent cycles" of a torus.
• The 1st homology of a Klein Bottle is $\mathbb{Z} + \mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}$.
• One cycle can change its orientation with a continuous deformation: $\mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}$
• Immersion, Embedding
• 1st Betti Number = rank of 1st homology group
• $H_1$: 1st homology group
• $\cdots \rightarrow C_n \rightarrow C_{n-1} \cdots \rightarrow C_0 \rightarrow 0$
• Chain Complex $C_n$: free abelian groups generated by oriented simplices
• $C_n \rightarrow C_{n-1}$ via $\partial_n$ - boundary operator.
• Boundary operator: outward orientation
• $H_n = \text{ker} \partial_n / \text{im} \partial_{n+1}$
• Looking back at $H_1 = \text{ker} \partial_1 / \text{im} \partial_2$
• $\text{im} \partial_2$ is a boundary of elements of $C_2$.
• They should be killed - continuous deformations can kill it.
• Now thinking about the "poset" is like taking linear combinations.
• Why do we take $\text{ker} \partial_1$?
• We want to look at cycles - at that is precisely $\text{ker} \partial_1$.
• Conclusion: $H_1$: Cycle / Filled

Graph Filtration, Again

• For a fixed parameter $e$, consider the simplicial complex $X_e$.
• The nodes are those of $X$, and the edges of $X$ are at most $e$.
• The triangles are the triples of adjacent edges.
• Now we can think of birth/death of a component
• Keep track of the 1st Betti number as parameter changes
• Bottleneck Distance: Between Persistence Diagram

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데이터들의 움직임, 그 동역학: 마르코프 체인의 이해

• Markov Chain
• A stochastic process $X = \{X_n\}$ in a countable space $S$ is a discrete time Markov Chain if
• For all $n$, $X_n \in S$.
• For all $n, i_0, i_1, \cdots , i_n$, we have $$P(X_n = i_n| X_{n-1}=i_{n-1}, \cdots, x_0 = i_0) = P(X_n = i_n | X_{n-1}=i_{n-1})$$
• 바로 전 상황에만 depend하다고 생각
• Transitional Matrix
• Steady States (Stationary Distribution), Eigenvalues, Perron-Frobenius Theorem
• Simple/General Random Walk (in $\mathbb{Z}^2$)
• Expectation, Independence of Random Variables, Translation Distance
• Markov chain on a finite graph

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1. yesterday 2019.10.11 13:05

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데이터가 사는 세상: 그래프 이론, 네트워크 이론의 소개

• Network Theory
• degree = degree centrality = # edges adjacent to vertex
• cliques, connected components
• regular graph
• hub = a node with high degree (maximum degree centrality?)
• Centrality: ways to determine hubs
• 1. Degree Centrality = degree of a node
• every edge is as important as other edges - not taking the "weights" into calculation
• 2. Eigenvector Centrality = component of the eigenvector (with the maximum absolute value eigenvalue)
• the matrix here is vertex-adjacency matrix
• such eigenvector is unique by the Perron-Frobenius Theorem
• this eigenvector has all of its components non-negative
• 3. Closeness Centrality = inverse/reciprocal of average shortest path lengths
• short shortest-paths implies high centrality, so it is a hub
• Efficiency
• 1. Global Efficiency: $E(G) = \frac{1}{n(n-1)} \cdot \sum_{i \neq j} \frac{1}{d_G(i,j)}$
• $E_{glob}(G) = \frac{E(G)}{E(G^{ideal})}$, where $G^{ideal}$ is a graph with all possible edges.
• 2. Local Efficiency: $E_{loc}(G) = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i \in G} E(G_i)$
• Here, $G_i$ is a subgraph with $i$'s neighbors, but not $i$.
• 3. Clustering Coefficient: Global, Local, Network Average
• ratio between number of triangles and number of triplets
• Generating Artificial Complex Network
• Regular Networks: fixed degree - choose adjacent edges randomly
• Small Word Network (Watts-Strogatz): most nodes are not adjacent
• Ring lattice with $k$ neighbors, and reconnect each edge with probability $p$.
• Random Network (Erdos-Renyi model): $P(\text{deg}(v)) = \binom{n-1}{k} p^k (1-p)^{n-1-k}$
• cf. Percolation - Kolmogorov's Zero-One Law
• Scale Free Network (Barabasi-Albert model): preferential attachment
• add an edge each step, higher degree implies higher probability to connect an edge
• degree distribution follows the power law - $P(k) \sim k^{-\gamma}$
• Hyperbolic Network: Spatial Network
• Vertices are sprinkled in hyperbolic space
• Edges are connected if the distance between the two vertices are close enough
• a short note on hyperbolic geometry

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데이터가 사는 위상적 공간: 거리 공간과 위상 공간의 이해

• Clustering
• Single-Linkage Clustering: 가장 길이가 짧은 edge를 연결하는 것을 반복 (크루스칼 ㅋㅋ)
• Single-Linkage Matrix - each entry is the distance between objects
• Minimum Spanning Tree - (진짜 나오네 ㅋㅋ)
• Metric Space = set + distance function
• $d(x,y)=0 \iff x=y$
• $d(x,y)=d(y,x)$
• $d(x,z) \le d(x,y)+d(y,z)$
• Topological Space = set + topology
• Topology = set of open subsets
• definition of topology and open sets - union and finite intersection
• short note on homeomorphism
• short note on discrete topology
• path-connected: two points are endpoints of a curve
• continuity on a topology
• number of path-connected components = 0th Betti number
• Topological Data Analysis: Graph Filtration
• Fix a parameter $e$ which varies from $0$ to maximum edge length
• Consider a graph $X_e$, whose nodes are those of X, but edges are the edges of length at most $e$
• The resulting graph may have several connected components as we removed some edges of $X$
• The 0th Betti number is a (monotone decreasing) function of $e$.
• Record all parameters in which the value of the function changes - birth/death of a component
• 오랜 시간 버틴 component는 당연히 중요한 component라고 볼 수 있을 것
• Standardized Moments
• $\mu_k = E((X-\mu)^k)$, $\sigma^k = \left(\sqrt{E((X-\mu)^2)}\right)^k$
• $\displaystyle \frac{\mu_k}{\sigma^k}$를 생각함. variance, skewness, kurtosis
• 중앙이 어디인가, 얼마나 퍼져있는가, 얼마나 치우쳐 있는가, tail이 얼마나 두꺼운가
• How do we differentiate between two data sets using filtration?
• via slope, kurtosis, dendrograms
• focus on persistent components that "lasts long" during the filtration process

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데이터가 사는 세상: 유클리드 공간

• Discussion on the Euclidean Space (with the dot product equipped)
• Dimension Reduction (Visualization)
• visualizing data in $\mathbb{R}^{100}$  as a picture in $\mathbb{R}^2$
• A1. Principal Component Analysis
• linear mapping to a subspace so that the variance of the data is maximized
• covariance Matrix (or correlation Matrix)
• take the maximal eigenvectors of this matrix (eigenvectors with maximum $|\lambda|$)
• the subspace should be generated by those eigenvectors
• A2. Fisher Linear Discriminant (Linear Discriminant Analysis)
• group & label each data set
• take the average of each group
• maximize a function that will give a large separation between the projected group means
• also, we should give a small variance within each class, thereby minimizing the class overlap
• $J(W) = \frac{(m_2-m_1)^2}{s^2_1+s^2_2}$ should be our target (maximize this value)
• A3. t-SNE algorithm
• construct a probability distribution over pairs of high-dimensional objects
• similar objects have a high probability of being picked
• dissimilar objects have an extremely small probability of being picked
• define a similar probability distribution over the points in the low-dimensional map
• minimize the Kullback-Leibler Divergence between the two distributions
• of course, the divergence should be calculated wrt the locations of the points in the map
• consider the correlation as "distance" - we want to find a map that preserves the distance well
• $D_{KL} (P||Q) = - \sum_{x \in \mathbb{\chi}} P(x) \log \left( \frac{Q(x)}{P(x)} \right)$
• this formula has a resemblance with entropy
• $\sum_{i=1}^n p_i \cdot (- \log p_i)$ - here, $(-\log p_i)$ is information, and we take the weighted average
• t-SNE algorithm is extremely useful for practical purposes

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